Tennessee’s licensing laws for lower-income occupations rank as the 39th most burdensome. On average, they require $327 in fees, 226 days of education and experience, and approximately one exam. Because Tennessee licenses more lower-income occupations than most states—71 of the 102 studied here—it ranks as the 13th most broadly and onerously licensed.

Tennessee licenses several occupations rarely licensed elsewhere. For example, few other states license dental assistants (eight others), bartenders (12) or locksmiths (13). The state also imposes more onerous requirements than average for some occupations, such as auctioneers. Tennessee forces auctioneers to demonstrate about 756 days of education and experience (110 hours of education and two years of experience), pay $750 in fees, and pass two exams. But the licensed-state average burdens are just 94 days of education and experience, $278 in fees, and one exam. Making Tennessee’s burdens even more heavy-handed, 21 states do not deem it necessary to license auctioneers at all.

Tennessee also imposes burdens on some occupations that seem disproportionate compared to those for others that may pose greater risks to the public. Its burdens for fire and security alarm installers—some of the steepest of their type—are steeper than its burdens for all but one other occupation. Opening an alarm installation business requires four years of experience and two years of education (2,190 days total), nearly $1,000 in fees, and one exam. But EMTs need complete just 110 hours (roughly 26 days) of education, pay $205 in fees and pass two exams.  Tennessee could improve its rankings by reducing or repealing many of its licensing burdens for lower-income occupations, or—if government regulation is necessary—by replacing them with less restrictive regulatory alternatives.

Texas licenses 37 of the 102 lower-income occupations studied here. Its laws are the 21st most burdensome and require, on average, $253 in fees, 341 days of education and experience, and around two exams. Licensing fewer lower-income occupations than most states, Texas ranks as the nation’s 42nd most broadly and onerously licensed state.

Despite licensing fewer occupations than most states, Texas does license some occupations that are rarely licensed elsewhere. For example, few other states license animal control officers (six), locksmiths (13) or weighers (24). Security alarm installers are not licensed by 14 states, yet Texas requires two years (730 days) of experience, $462 in fees and one exam before a person can open a security alarm installation business.

Texas imposes burdens on some occupations that seem excessive compared to those for other occupations that may present a greater risk to public safety. For example, it takes 10 times longer to become a cosmetologist or barber than it does to become an EMT (approximately 350 days or 1,500 hours of education versus approximately 35 days or 150 hours). Practitioners of these occupations should not be required to undergo so much more training than emergency first responders. Texas could expand lower-income employment opportunities by reducing or repealing its licensure burdens for cosmetologists, barbers and many other occupations, or—if government regulation is necessary—by replacing them with less restrictive regulatory alternatives such as inspections or voluntary certification.

Utah licenses more lower-income occupations than average—64 of the 102 studied here—and its laws are the 13th most burdensome. On average, Utah law requires $367 in fees, 504 days of education and experience, and roughly two exams to enter a licensed occupation. Utah ranks as the 15th most broadly and onerously licensed state, leaving much room for improvement.

Utah frequently licenses occupations that are unlicensed by most other states, such as upholsterers (licensed by nine other states), crane operators (17 others), commercial floor sander contractors (21 others) and commercial painting contractors (21 others). The latter two contractor occupations also face particularly steep burdens in Utah: an estimated 733 days lost to education and experience (20 hours of education and two years of experience), $549 in fees, and two exams. By comparison, the average requirements for these occupations in states that license them comprise fewer than 500 days of education and experience, less than $400 in fees, and around one exam. Given that so few states see fit to license commercial floor sander and painting contractors at all, Utah’s requirements appear particularly heavy-handed.

Utah also imposes burdens on some occupations that seem excessive compared to those for other occupations that may have a stronger connection to public safety. Fifty of Utah’s 64 occupational licenses, including all of its commercial and residential contractor licenses as well as its licenses for barbers, cosmetologists, manicurists and massage therapists, are more difficult to obtain than the state’s EMT license. For example, while cosmetologists need more than a year of education (an estimated 373 days or 1,600 hours), EMTs need only about a month (an estimated 28 days or 120 hours). Utah could improve its rankings by reducing or repealing heavy licensing burdens for lower-income occupations, or—if government regulation is necessary—by replacing them with less restrictive regulatory alternatives.

California is the most broadly and onerously licensed state in the nation. Not only does it license 76 of the 102 lower-income occupations studied here—more than all but two other states—its licensing laws rank as the nation’s third most burdensome due to high average fees ($486), lengthy average education and experience requirements (827 days lost), and a high average number of licensing exams (about two). Because it licenses so many occupations so onerously, California is the worst licensing environment for workers in lower-income occupations.

Among the many occupations California licenses are several that are rarely licensed elsewhere. Few other states license dairy equipment still machine setters (two), psychiatric technicians (four), tree trimmers (six) or travel agencies (six). Of those occupations, psychiatric technicians and tree trimmers face particularly steep burdens. Psychiatric technicians must pay $349 in fees to obtain a license to work, compared to a $119 average across licensed states. And tree trimmers must prove 1,460 days (four years) of experience to operate their businesses—more than double the licensed-state average of 574 days.

California also imposes disproportionate burdens on some occupations compared to others that may pose a greater risk to public health and safety. For example, the state’s license for manicurists demands 400 hours (about 93 days) of education. Meanwhile, its license for EMTs requires only 160 hours (approximately 37 days).

As the worst state in the nation when it comes to licensing, California has much work to do. To improve its rankings and expand opportunity, California should repeal or reduce its many needless and irrational burdens, or—if government regulation is necessary—replace them with less restrictive regulatory alternatives.

Ohio’s occupational licensing laws for lower-income occupations are the 20th most burdensome, requiring, on average, $188 in fees, 350 days of education and experience, and around one exam. Ohio licenses fewer of the occupations studied here—40 of 102—than average, making it the nation’s 38th most broadly and onerously licensed state.

Ohio is the only state to license social and human service assistants, and it does so onerously: Its license requires a $50 fee, two years (730 days) of education, and one exam. As no other state deems licensure of social and human service assistants necessary, Ohio’s decision to license the occupation at all, let alone so arduously, is questionable. Ohio also imposes heavy education and experience burdens on would-be auctioneers, requiring an estimated 379 days (comprising one year of experience and 10 days of education) to become licensed. But the average across licensed states is 94 days—and 21 states do not even license auctioneers at all.

Ohio also imposes burdens on several occupations that seem excessive compared to those for other occupations that may present greater risks to the public. For example, barbers lose 420 days (1,800 hours) to education, and cosmetologists 350 days (1,500 hours). EMTs, on the other hand, lose only 35 days (150 hours) to education before they are allowed to provide life-saving aid. Ohio could expand employment opportunities in the state by repealing or reducing its arduous licensing requirements for barbers, cosmetologists and other lower-income occupations, or—if government regulation is necessary—by replacing them with less restrictive regulatory alternatives such as inspections or voluntary certification.

Oklahoma licenses 41 of the 102 lower-income occupations studied here. Its laws are the 18th most burdensome, requiring an average of $234 in fees, 399 days of education and experience, and around two exams. Because of the state’s higher than average burdens but lower than average number of occupations licensed, Oklahoma ranks as the 35th most broadly and onerously licensed in the nation.

Oklahoma licenses some occupations that are unlicensed elsewhere, such as packers (licensed by just six states), title examiners (seven), dental assistants (nine), locksmiths (14) and veterinary technicians (36). Among those, vet techs are particularly onerously licensed, facing $440 in fees, two years (730 days) of education and two exams. Security and fire alarm installers—each licensed in roughly three dozen states—also face particularly heavy burdens in Oklahoma. The state’s alarm installer licenses require hundreds of dollars in fees and 1,460 days—four years—of experience. But the average education or experience requirement across licensed states is 836 days for security alarm installers and 915 days for fire alarm installers.

Oklahoma also imposes burdens on some occupations that seem excessive compared to those for other occupations that may present greater risks to the public. For example, EMTs must pay $165 in fees, complete 154 hours (around 36 days) of education and pass two exams. But barbers and cosmetologists face education requirements that are nearly 10 times as high—1,500 hours (roughly 350 days). Oklahoma could improve employment prospects for its lower-income residents by reducing or repealing its arduous requirements for barbers, cosmetologists and other occupations, or—if government regulation is necessary—by replacing them with less restrictive regulatory alternatives such as inspections or voluntary certification.

Oregon’s licensing laws for lower-income occupations are some of the worst in the nation, ranking as the eighth most burdensome. On average, they require $335 in fees, 537 days of education and experience, and roughly one exam. And because Oregon licenses more occupations than most other states—69 of the 102 studied here—it also ranks as the nation’s eighth most broadly and onerously licensed state.

Oregon licenses several occupations that are rarely licensed elsewhere. For example, few other states license dairy equipment still machine setters (two), farm labor contractors (nine), bartenders (12), locksmiths (13), commercial floor sander contractors (21) or commercial painting contractors (21). Among those, the two commercial contractor occupations face particularly steep burdens. In addition to paying hundreds of dollars in fees, both must demonstrate roughly 1,463 days of education and experience (comprising four years of experience and 16 hours of education). That is triple the average education and experience requirements across licensed states.

Oregon also makes it much more difficult to enter some occupations than others that may present greater risks to the public. For example, EMTs need demonstrate only about a month of education and experience, (an estimated 28 days, comprising 110 hours of education and 16 hours of experience) and pass two exams to become licensed. But cosmetologists must complete more than a year of education (about 397 days or 1,700 hours) and pass three exams. Oregon could improve its rankings by reducing or repealing these and other illogical licensing burdens—if government regulation is necessary—by replacing them with less restrictive regulatory alternatives.

Pennsylvania’s licensing laws for lower-income occupations are some of the least burdensome in the nation, ranking 50th out of all 50 states and D.C. The laws require, on average, $138 in fees, 117 days of education and experience, and around one exam. Licensing fewer of the occupations studied here than most states—51 of 102—Pennsylvania ranks as the 31st most broadly and onerously licensed state.

Pennsylvania frequently licenses occupations that are unlicensed by other states, such as upholsterers (licensed by nine other states), weighers (24 others), taxidermists (27 others) and auctioneers (29 others). Of those, auctioneers are particularly onerously licensed, facing $270 in fees, 140 days of education (20 credit hours) and one exam. Given that so many other states do not require licensure of auctioneers, these requirements are excessive.

Pennsylvania also imposes burdens on some occupations that appear disproportionate compared to those for other occupations that may present greater risks to the public. For example, it is considerably more difficult to become a barber or cosmetologist than it is to become an EMT. While barbers and cosmetologists must complete 292 days (1,250 hours) of education, EMTs need only complete 35 days (150 hours) of education. It should not require eight times more schooling to become a barber or cosmetologist than to become an emergency first responder. Pennsylvania could open up employment opportunities by reducing or repealing these and other illogical occupational licenses, or—if government regulation is necessary—by replacing them with less restrictive regulatory alternatives.

Rhode Island is one of the worst states in the nation for occupational licensing, ranking as the 10th most broadly and onerously licensed. The state licenses more lower-income occupations than most states—72 of the 102 studied here. Rhode Island’s licensing laws rank as the 27th most burdensome, requiring an average of $223 in fees, 326 days of education and experience, and around one exam.

Rhode Island licenses some occupations that are rarely licensed elsewhere. It is the only state to license conveyor operators. And few other states license non-instructional teacher assistants (four), tree trimmers (six), bartenders (12) or sign language interpreters (21). Among those, sign language interpreters face particularly steep burdens. Rhode Island’s license requires $700 in fees, four years and 40 hours of education (an estimated 1,469 days), and two exams. Given that so few states see fit to license sign language interpreters at all, such heavy requirements are questionable.

Rhode Island also imposes education and experience burdens on some occupations that seem excessive compared to those for other occupations that may present greater risks to the public. For example, barbers and cosmetologists must complete nearly one year (roughly 350 days or 1,500 hours) of education before becoming licensed. These burdens are considerably heavier than those for EMTs. These emergency first responders need less than a month (an estimated 26 days or 110 hours) of education, even though they arguably bear more responsibility for public safety. Rhode Island could improve its rankings by reducing or repealing its heavy occupational licensing burdens for barbers, cosmetologists and other occupations, or—if government regulation is necessary—by replacing them with less restrictive regulatory alternatives such as inspections or voluntary certification.

Nevada is the second worst state in the nation for occupational licensing of lower-income occupations. Licensing 75 of the 102 studied here, Nevada is more broadly and onerously licensed than all but one other state. Nevada also has the second most burdensome licensing laws, requiring, on average, $704 in fees, 861 days—more than two years—of education and experience, and around two exams.

Nevada licenses some rarely licensed occupations very onerously. For instance, Nevada is one of just four states that license interior designers, its second most onerously licensed occupation. The state requires four years of education and two years of experience (2,190 days total), $1,215 in fees, and one exam. Nevada is also one of just nine states that license animal trainers. Its fees for this occupation are nearly seven times the average across licensed states ($1,408 compared to $209).

Nevada also imposes burdens on some occupations that seem excessive compared to those for other occupations that may present greater risks to the public. For example, 20 states do not license bill collection agencies at all, yet in Nevada a person wishing to open one must demonstrate 730 days (two years) of experience. By contrast, EMTs need just 26 days (110 hours) of education. And the fees bill collection agencies must pay for licensure are over 10 times the fees for EMTs ($1,010 versus $90). Nevada can improve its dismal rankings—and expand opportunity for lower-income workers—by reducing or repealing its irrational licensing burdens for bill collection agencies and other occupations, or—if government regulation is necessary—by replacing them with less restrictive regulatory alternatives.